Material Design
The characteristic in ESP practice is materials writing. In marked contrast to general English teaching, a large amount of the ESP teacher’s time may well be taken up in writing materials.
There are some reasons for this:
a. A teacher or institution may wish to supply teaching materials that will fit the specific subject area of particular learners. In addition to the profusion of subject specialism. ESP course can vary from one week of intensive study to an hour a week for three years or more.
b. Even when suitable materials are available, it may not possible to buy them because of currency or import restrictions.
c. ESP is also for non-educational. For example to pull up the reputation of an institution.
And here, there is already an established tradition of ESP teacher’s, producing in-house materials. These may be distributed to other institutions or even published, but in general they are written by teacher to their students in the institutions. Few have had any training the skills and techniques of materials writing. It also shows a rather a cavalier attitude to the activity of materials writing, implying, as it does, that if you can teach you can write materials. And in other hand, it can be argued that the process of materials writing may help to make teacher more aware of what is involved in teaching learning.
Material writing is a fact of life for a large number of ESP teachers. And below are some techniques for producing useful and creative ESP materials.
1. Defining objectives
In define the purpose; we can identify some principles which will guide us in the actual writing of the materials.
a. Materials provide a stimulus to learning. Good materials will, therefore, contain:
- Interesting texts
- Enjoyable activities which implicate the learners thinking capacities.
- Opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge and skills.
b. Materials help to organize the teaching-learning process, by providing a path through the complex mass of the language to be learnt. Good materials should, therefore, provide a clear and coherent unit structure which will guide teacher and learner through various activities in such a way as to maximize the chances of learning. This structure should help the teacher in planning lessons. A materials model must be clear and systematic, but flexible enough to allow for creativity and variety.
c. Materials embody a view of the nature of language and learning.
d. Materials reflect the nature of the learning task. Materials writing was a simple task of isolating the structure writing a text exemplify it and pattern drills to practice it. Materials should try to create a balanced outlook which both reflects to complexity f the task. Yet make it appear manageable.
e. Materials can have a useful function in broadening the basis of teacher training, by introducing teacher to new techniques.
f. Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use. Language teaching materials should not be the kind of beginner’s guide to applied linguistics, which is so prevalent in ESP.
2. A materials design model
The aim of this particular model is to provide a coherent framework for the integration of the various aspects of learning, while at the same time allowing enough room for creativity and variety to flourish. The model consists of four elements: input, content focus, language focus, task.
a Input: this may be text, dialogue, video recording, diagram or any piece of communication data, depending on the needs you have defined in your analysis. The input provides a number of things:
- stimulus material for activities;
- new language item;
- correct models of language use;
- a topic for communication;
- opportunities for learners to use their information processing skills;
- Opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge both of the language and the subject matter.
b Content focus: language is not an end in itself, but a means of conveying information and feelings about something. Non-linguistic content should be exploited to generate meaningful communication in the classroom.
c Language focus: our aim is to enable learners to use language, but it is unfair to give learners communicative tasks and activities for which they do not have enough of the necessary language knowledge. Good materials should involve both opportunities for analysis and synthesis. In language focus learners have the chance to take the language to pieces, study how it works and practice putting it back together again.
d Task: the ultimate purpose of language learning is language use. Materials should be designed, therefore, to lead towards a communicative task in which learners use the content and language knowledge they have built up through the unit.
These four elements combine in the model as follows: |
The primary focus of the unit is the task. The model acts as a vehicle which leads to the point where they are able to carry out the task. The language and content are drawn from the input and are selected according to what the learners will need in order to do the task. It follows that an important of the model is to create coherence in terms of both language and content throughout the unit. This provides the support for more complex activities buy building a fund of knowledge and skills.
3. A materials design model: sample materials
The basic model can be used for materials of any length. Every stage could be covered in one lesson, if the task is a small one, or the whole unit might be spread over a series of lessons. In this part we will show what the model looks like in practice in some of oour own materials.
The materials are intended for lower intermediate level students from a variety of technical spealisms. The topic of blood circulation system can be of relevance to a wide range of subjects. Here is the example about pumping system.
Ø Starter – every pump is part of a system for moving fluids. The human body has system for moving blood, how does it work?
- It creates a context of knowlegde for comprehension of the input.
- It actives the learner’s minds and gets them thinking.
- It arouses the learners’ interest in the topic.
- It reveals what the learners already know in terms of language and content.
- It can provide a meaningful context in the new vocabulary or gramatical items.
Ø Gathering information- improve the learners’ knowledge and abilities at any stage.
Ø Language focus- give practice in some of language elements needed for the task and the focus in language form not meaning.
4. Refining the Model
A number of possible refreshment to the model can be seen above. We can relate these points to the nucleus of the model to provide an extended model like this:
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5. Materials and the syllabus
Although one feature might be used as the organising principle of a syllabus, there are in fact several syllabuses operating in any course. We note also when dealing with needs analysis, that we must take account not just of the visible features of the target situation, but also of intagible factors that relate to the learning situation, for example learner involvement, variety, use of exiting knowledge etc. A model must be able to ensure edequate coverage through the syllabus of all the features identified as playing a role in the development of learning. In addition to having an internal coherence, therefore, each unit must also relate effectively to the other units in the course. There needs to be a coherence between the unit structure and the syllabus structure to ensure that the course provides edequate and appropriate coverage of syllabus items.
Identfying features of the model with syllabus features does not mean that they only play a role in that position, not that other factors are not involved in that position.
| LANGUAGE FACTORS | LEARNING FACTORS | UNIT 1 | UNIT 2 |
| Basic lexis/ concepts | Orientation to topic/ use of learner’s existing knowledge |  starter |  starter |
| Text types/ topics | Variety, interest, level |   INPUT |   INPUT |
| lexis | Skills development retrieving information | CONTENT  FOCUS | CONTENT  FOCUS |
| Stuctures/ functions | Pattern practice/ consolidation analysis | LANGUAGE  FOCUS | LANGUAGE  FOCUS |
| Discourse types | Learner involvement Learning through use |  TASK |  TASK |
| Integration of unit Language with own Specialist field | Face validity Relevance to own interest | project | project |
We have made wide use of models throughout this book. At this point it is useful to make a cautionary distinction between two types of model, since both are used in the materials design process:
a) Predictive. This kind of model provides the generate framework within which creativity can operate. The unit model is of this kind. It is a model hat enables the operator to select, organise and present data.
b) Evaluative. This kind of moder acts as a feedback device to tell you wheteher you have done what you intended. The syllabus/ unit interface model is of this kind. Typically it is used as a checklist. Matereials are written with only outline reference to the S/ UI. Then when enough material is available the S/ UI can be used to check coverage appropriacy.
If the models are used inappropriately, the materials writers will almost certainly be so swamped with factors to consider that they will probably achieve little of worth.
6. Using the models: a case study
The models we have presented are ones that we have used in preparing the materials.
The difficulties that found in applying this model are:
1. They were mostly descriptive. There is little that done with reading and answering comprehension questions.
2. They contained a lot of very specific vocabulary which be effectively explained with realia.
3. More difficult to make them understand when they have no vocabulary before.
A new need analysis that found:
1. The first year’s work was on general technical topics
2. Lecturer assumed that students know little or nothing about the material
3. Lecturer made wide use of references about the topic in teaching the specific subjects.
Here is the guidelines steps for using the models and illustrated them:
1. 
Find your text it should be occurred naturally
Find your text it should be occurred naturallyIt should be interest
It should be capable of generating the useful classroom activities
2. Go to the end of the model. Think of a task that the learners could do at the end of the unit
3. Go back to the syllabus
4. Decide what language structures, vocabulary, functions, content the input contains
5. Think of some exercise and activities to practice the items you have identified
6. Go back to the input
7. Go through stages 1-6 again with the revised input
8. Check the new materials against the syllabus and amend accordingly
9. Try the materials in the classroom
10.Revise the materials in the light of classroom use.
Conclusion
Here we have looked in detail at one of the most characteristic features of ESP work : materials writing. And we have presented and shown how to operate a model which puts into practice a learning – centred approach to materials.
- We have noted that there is much common ground between learners of apparently very different subject specialism.
- If a new set of materials is needed, the second alternative is to look at published materials.
- Even if the first two alternatives fail to provide exactly what you want, you can still try adapting exiting material.
- The final possibility is to try and reduce the area of the course that will require new materials. It s highly unlikely that any group of learners will require completely new materials for every lesson. Lookat your course design and identify those areas that could be covered by exiting materials with or without adaptation. Then concentrate your materials writing effort on the remaining areas.
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In the end, feel they have to write new materials, for the few hints :
- Don’t re-invent the wheel. Use existing materials as a source for ideas.
- Its better to work in a team, if only to retain your sanity.
- Don’t set out to write the perfect materials on the first draft. Materials can always be improved. Do what you can and try it out. Use what you learn from this experience to revise and expand the materials.
- Don’t underestimate the time needed for materials writing. It can be a very time-consuming business.
- Pay careful attention to the appearance of your materials. If they look boring and scruffy, they will be threaten as such.
11. Methodology
In this chapter we present three models lessons to illustrate the practical implications of these ideas for the classroom. And below are learning-centered methodologies.
1. Second language learning is developmental process. Learners use their existing knowledge to make the new information comprehensible.
2. Language learning is an active process. It is not enough for learners just to have the necessary knowledge to make thing meaningful. We must make a distinction between two types of activity:
- Psycho-motor activity, that is, the observable movement of speech organs or limbs in accordance with signals from the brain.
- Language processing activity, that is, the organization of information into a meaningful network of knowledge. This kind of activity is internal and not observable.
3. Language learning is a decision-making process. In the traditional classroom the teacher made all the decision. Indeed It was essential for the teacher to do so in order to avoid all possibilities of error you can’t make decisions without taking risks and taking risks makes error possible or even likely.
4. Language learning is not just a matter of linguistic knowledge. The most basic problem of second language learning is the mismatch between the learners’ conceptual/cognitive capacities and the learners’ linguistic level. Teaching must respect both levels of the learners’ state (Breen & Candlin, 1980).
5. Language learning is not the learners’ first with language. Every second language learner is already communicatively competent in one language. They do not know the specific words, but they know what communication is and how it is used (Swan, 1985).
6. Learning is emotional experience. Our concern should be to develop the positive emotion as opposed to the negative ones by, for example:
- Using pair and group work to build on exciting social relationship;
- Giving students time to think and generally avoiding undue pressure; etc.
7. Language learning is to a large extent incidental. You can learn language incidentally, while you are actually thinking about something else. The problems to be solved in a problem-solving approach do not have to be language problems (Prabhu, 1983).
8. Language learning is not systematic. We learn by systematizing knowledge, but the process itself is not systematic. The learner must create an internal system. An internal system may help, but that is all it can do.
Model lesson 1
Materials:
Worksheet 1: strip cartoon bubbles blank out
Worksheet 2: bubble texts
Tape of conversation
A paperclip and needle
Audience
Engineering or general technical students, intermediate level
Procedure
A. STARTER:
1. Hold up the paperclip and the needle. Ask what they are made of.
This should get answer: ‘steel’
2. Give them to a student and ask him or her to bend them. He or she will be able to bend the clip easily, but not the needle. Ask why this is so. If they are both made of steel. This should get the answer :’there are different types of steel’
3. Ask in what ways metals like steel can differ, for example hard/soft, tough/brittle. You could ask what the different types are used.
B. ANALYSIS:
4. Divide the classroom into groups of 3 or 4. Give each group a copy of Worksheet 1. Give only one copy to each group, so that they will have to work together.
5. Tell the students to look at each picture and decide what is happening.
6. Ask groups to report what they think is happening in each picture. Ask questions to get as much information as possible.
C. PREDICTION:
7. In this way students should built up enough facts to be able to predict what the dialogue is about. Ask the students who the people are; what the man is trying to etc. in this way it should emerge that it is a teacher conducting an experiment to show the effects of heating and cooling on two types of steel.
8. Ask students to use the knowledge they now have and their knowledge of example, ’The man is showing the materials’ then he will probably explain what he is going to do, comment on his actions and draw a conclusion.’
9. Get the students to predict what the dialogue will be. What to they think will go in each bubbles.
10. Groups suggest possible texts for the bubbles.
D. MATCHING:
11. Give out Worksheet 2 (the bubble texts). Students put them in order to match the blank bubbles. If possible cut up Worksheet 2; students arrange bubbles in order.
12. Play the tape. Students check their version.
E. FOLLOW UP:
13. There are many possible ways of following this activity up:
- Discuss the discourse pattern of experiments or the language.
- Students explain how they got their answers. What clues they used.
- Students write a report on the experiment.
- Give students pictures of another experiment. Get them to make a commentary or a report on it.
- Students their own experiments.
Model lesson 2
Materials – worksheet 1, 2, and 3
Feedback worksheet
Audience- business or secretarial students, upper intermediate/advanced level
Procedure
1. Gathering information
- Divide the class into three groups and give each group number : 1, 2, 3, 4, and etc.
- Give one worksheet each group.
- Tell the group to read their worksheets and make a note about the details in particular writing down any information.
- Tell each member of the group to keep a copy of the notes.
- Go around the class and make sure that the students are noting down the relevant information and that they understand the facts of the text.
- Collect the worksheet
2. Sharing information
- Form new group of three, so that each group has one member from the each of the old groups.
- Check that the each group has at least one member of each group.
- Give one copy of the feedback worsheet of each group.
Model lesson 3
Materials
Worksheet 1. Cut into strips
Worksheet 2.
Cassette recording of dialogue in Worksheet 1
Audience
Hotel and tourist students. Lower intermediate.
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Wworksheet 1
GO
Procedure
A. PREDICTION
1. Play just first line of the dialogue. (ring ring) good morning. Orient Hotel. Can I help you?
2. Ask students to predict what the conversation is going to be about. Ask who is talking. What they think the caller wants, what the people in the dialogue mught talk about. You will be surprised how much can be predicted from just one line. Introduce any new or important vocabulary.
3. Play the tape right through. Students listen and check their predictions.
4. Ask if there are any vocabulary difficulties.
5. Play the tape once more.
B. RECONSTRUCTION
1. Divide the class into pairs
2. Give each pair the cut up dialogue. Their task is to put the dialogue back. Together again.
3. Go round and help students. Don’t do it for them. Suggest ways in which they might find the answer. For example, by looking for repeated words.
4. Play the tape again. Students check their answer.
5. Play the tape one line at a time. Students repeat in chorus.
C. PRACTICE
1. Tell the students to write on each slip of paper who is speaking: receptionist or caller.
2. Tell one member of each pair to take the caller’s pieces and the other to take the receptionist’s pieces.
3. Pairs read the dialogue.
4. Tell the callers to turn over their pieces of paper. So that they cannot see them. They do the dialogue again. Then the receptionist turn their pieces over: the caller turn their back. They do the dialogue again.
5. Collect the receptionist pieces. Students must write the receptionist part of the dialogue using the caller’s part as cues.
6. Students role play their new conversation
7. Give out worksheet 2. Students make the dialogue for new callers.
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Analysis
How do these lessons put into practice the principles outlined? There are a number of simple techniques that can be applied to almost any lesson.
1. Gaps.
It creates the demands because learning demands thinking.
Kinds of gaps:
a) Information gaps: sharing information from one to another
b) Media gaps: the information is continued from one to another medium
c) Reasoning gaps: working out what the discourse
d) Memory gaps: learners use their memories to reconstruct the information
e) Jigsaw gaps
f) Opinion gaps: what is the important? What is relevant?
g) Certainty gaps: What is definitely known? What can be predicted
2. Variety.
It is the spice of learning
Kinds of varieties:
a) Variety of medium: text, tape, picture, speech
b) Variety of classroom organization: whole class, pair, individual
c) Variety of learner roles: presenter, evaluator, thinker
d) Variety of exercise: activity or task
e) Variety of skills: reading, listening, speaking, writing
f) Variety of topic
g) Variety of focus: accuracy, fluency, discourse, structure
3. Prediction.
It is central both to language use and language learning.
4. Enjoyment.
It is the simplest of all ways of engaging the learner’s mind.
5. An integrated methodology
6. Coherence.
It should be clear where a lesson is going.
7. Preparation.
It is normally interpreted as the teacher planning the stages of the lesson
8. Involvement.
Learner needs to be involved both cognitively and emotionally in the lesson. One of the simplest ways is asking questions
9. Creativity
Language is dynamic. The activities should allow for different possible answers, different levels of atmosphere.
10. Atmosphere
Effective learning depends on intangible factors, such as the relationship between teacher and students.
Conclusion
In this chapter we have tried some techniques which can help the ESP classroom a livelier more enjoyable and thus more effective environment for both learner and teacher. And for the immportant point are :
- There is nothing specific about ESP methodology. The principles which underlie good ESP methodology are the same as those that underlie ELT methodology in general. Similarly, at the level of techniques the ESP teacher can learn a lot from general English need not to think that a whole new methodology must be learnt. The classroom skills and techniques acquired in general English teaching can be usefully employed in the ESP classroom.
- What happens in the classroom is not just an afterthought to be grafted on to ready-made materials and syllabuses. The activities in the classroom should feed back to all the other stages in the course design. As we saw with the blood cell in chapter 9, if youn can create a useful activity by changing a text, change it. It is the activity that counts;”I do and I understand”.
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